Refining/Downstream
The United States experienced a steep decline in refining capacity between 1981 and the mid-1990s. Between 1981 and 1989, the number of U.S. refineries fell from 324 to 204, representing a loss of 3 million bbl/d in operable capacity (from 18.6 million bbl/d to 15.7 million bbl/d), while refining capacity utilization increased from 69% to 87%. Much of the decline in U.S. refining capacity resulted from the 1981 deregulation (elimination of price controls and allocations), which effectively removed the major prop from underneath many marginally profitable, often smaller, refineries.

Refinery closures have continued since 1989, bringing the total number of operable U.S. refineries to 149 in 2003. In general, refineries that have closed have been relatively small and have had less favorable economics than other refineries in their market area. Also, in recent years, some smaller, less-economic refineries that had faced additional investments for environmental reasons in order to stay in business found closing preferable because they predicted that they could not stay competitive in the long term.

While some refineries have closed, and no new refineries have been built in nearly 30 years, many existing refineries have expanded their capacities. As a result of capacity creep," whereby existing refineries create additional refining capacity from the same physical structure, capacity per operating refinery increased by 28% over the 1990 to 1998 period, for example. Overall, since the mid-1990s, U.S. refinery capacity has increased from 15.0 million bbl/d in 1994 to 16.9 million bbl/d in September 2004. Also in September 2004, utilization of operating capacity at U.S. refineries was averaging around 90%, down from 97% in July and August. Although financial, environmental, and legal considerations make it unlikely that new refineries will be built in the United States, expansion at existing refineries likely will increase total U.S. refining capacity in the long-run.

In the latter half of the eighth century C.E., Jews in Babylon who opposed rabbinic authority and belief in their oral law responded to a learned leader named Anan ben David. He proclaimed each Jew’s right to unrestricted study of the Hebrew Scriptures as the only source of true religion, without regard for rabbinic interpretation or the Talmud. Anan taught: “Search thoroughly in the Torah [the written law of God] and do not rely on my opinion.” Because of this emphasis on Scripture, Anan’s followers became known as Qa·ra·´im´, a Hebrew name meaning “readers.”...

...Particularly after Anan’s death, Karaite leaders frequently disagreed over the degree and nature of certain restrictions, and their message was not always clear. The Karaites lacked unity because they did not recognize any single leader but emphasized personal reading and interpretation of the Scriptures, as opposed to rabbinic-style authority. Despite this, however, the Karaite movement grew in popularity and influence far beyond the Babylonian Jewish community and spread throughout the Middle East. A major Karaite center was even established in Jerusalem.

During the ninth and tenth centuries C.E., Karaite scholars excelled in a renewed study of the Hebrew language and experienced a sort of golden age. They considered the written Hebrew Scripture text, not the oral traditions, to be holy. Some Karaites became careful copyists of the Hebrew Scriptures. In fact, it was the Karaite challenge that spurred Masoretic study of the Scriptures among all Jews, ensuring a more accurately preserved Bible text today.

During this period of rapid growth, Karaite Judaism engaged in open missionary work among other Jews. This posed a clear threat to rabbinic Judaism.

How Did the Rabbis Respond?

The rabbinic counterattack was a vehement war of words, with cunning flexibility and repositioning of teaching. During the century following Anan’s attack, rabbinic Judaism adopted a number of the Karaite methods. The rabbis became more proficient in quoting the Scriptures, incorporating Karaite style and method in their rhetoric.

The undisputed leader of this verbal bout with the Karaites was Sa`adia ben Joseph, who became head of the Jewish community in Babylon in the first half of the tenth century C.E. Sa`adia’s major work, The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, was translated into English by Samuel Rosenblatt, who said in its introduction: “Even though . . . he was the authority in his day on the Talmud, [Sa`adia] makes comparatively sparing use of this source of Jewish tradition, apparently because it was his desire to defeat with their own weapons the Karaites who accepted only the Written Law as binding.”

Following in Sa`adia’s footsteps, rabbinic Judaism eventually gained the upper hand. It accomplished this by adapting just enough to take dynamic force away from Karaite arguments. The final blow was administered by Moses Maimonides, the noted Talmudic scholar of the 12th century. By his tolerant attitude toward the Karaites with whom he dwelt in Egypt, as well as his convincing scholarly style, he won their admiration and weakened the position of their own leadership.

The Karaite Movement Loses Momentum

Now lacking unity and without a well-orchestrated countermeasure, the Karaite movement lost both momentum and followers. With the passing of time, the Karaites modified their views and principles. Leon Nemoy, an author on the Karaite movement, writes: “While the Talmud remained theoretically outlawed, much talmudic material was quietly incorporated into Karaite practice of law and custom.” In essence, the Karaites lost their original purpose and adopted much of rabbinic Judaism.

There are still about 25,000 Karaites in Israel. A few thousand more can be found in other communities, mostly in Russia and the United States. Having their own oral traditions, however, they differ from the first Karaites.

The natural gas Honda Civic GX is rated as the cleanest production vehicle in the world.

According to NGVAmerica, there are more than 7 million NGVs in use worldwide, but only 150,000 of those are in the United States.

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Natural gas is our country's second largest energy resource and a vital component of our energy supply. 98% of the natural gas used in the United States is from North America. But 70% of our oil is purchased from foreign nations.

Natural gas is one of the cleanest, safest and most useful forms of energy — residentially, commercially and industrially. The natural gas industry has existed in the United States for over 100 years and continues to grow.

Domestic natural gas reserves are twice that of petroleum. And new discoveries of natural gas and ongoing development of renewable biogas are continually adding to existing reserves.

While it is a cheap, effective and versatile fuel, less than 1% of natural gas is currently used for transportation.

Building new wind generation facilities and better utilizing our natural gas resources can replace more than one-third of our foreign oil imports in 10 years. But it will take leadership.